Bio of concern

 Comparative historical method in the West under the shadow of
mm Review of Xu Tian Bo, the formation of . For example, they have originated in a feudal society composed of many countries, have a frequent war, have experienced the collapse of the feudal system and the formation of bureaucracy, all have a jungle of international order. However, the European form in the development of a balanced situation in many countries, while China has moved toward the reunification. Why is this? For this issue, Xu Bo Tian explained that: In order to gain advantage in the international struggle, competition, countries must take action. However, in this process, the Chinese state has adopted a self-reforms (self-strengthening reforms) and smart military and diplomatic strategies (cleaver strategies, she was referring to reform and Legalism in the , while the European countries but had since taken the corresponding decline of the (self-weakening expedients), and relative so he welcomed the unity of the Qin Empire, and Europe is weakening because of the corresponding self-taken and the reasoning is very clear, the book's many specific points are not unreasonable. As the history of the Chinese Qin Dynasty and the history of modern Europe's first full monograph comparison, the book will occupy in the Western academic position accordingly. However, Comparison of the use of her methods and history of international relations theory of realism are popular in the Western world though, but the methodology has a great sense of the error. These methodological errors led to the book questions, interpretation, narrative form and on the use of historical materials have great bias. In order to understand the root of the problem this book, we first compare methods of history and realism about the weaknesses of international relations theory.
method of comparing the shadow of history Tanami under
Hsu used the book of Western social science methods commonly used in comparative history. This approach is standard practice to two (or more) different cases on the symmetrical position from which to compare that is crucial to find a problem of [for example, why in the process of modernization in Russia and China embarked on the path of communist revolution, the fascist Japan and Germany take the road, and the United Kingdom, France, the United States has walked the path of democracy (Moore , 1966)?], and the author's task is to find out what caused the differences between these cases (or similar) of the theory or is the key mechanism. However, this method of comparative history has a fatal weakness of the following: first, in order to makes sense, these cases need to have great similarities. If there are many differences between the case, then it is difficult to confirm a difference in the end is what led to what we would like to explain the historical development trajectory. Spring and Autumn Period Modern European in China and different time and different political, economic and cultural conditions, the differences between them are overwhelming, we are making it difficult to make meaningful in that the symmetry between the two compared. on this point said Weber problem (that is why the rise of capitalism in the 19th century Europe rather than the same period, China and other civilizations?) will issue more than the book appears to promise Tanami meaningful, because Weber in the same time, the different cases background, or at least on this point in time for the control of different cases.
Second, comparative history in the symmetry approach, researchers have raised the problem is basically unity. For example, by Xu Bo Tian want to explain the explanation is the case, whom we will be very difficult to find a suitable case to the symmetry. For example, the above and the Kaiser and Cai Xu Bo Tian Beach blend into the following question, system? layer system. Roman Empire does not work, although the Roman Empire, the unification of Europe was created, but not to the formation of pre-Qin Chinese-style bureaucracy.
Thus, Symmetry Methods in comparative history questions violated when One of the most scientific method in the basic principle that an effective theory should be a greater variation can explain the theory (if x can not explain the interpretation of a b, but y can not only explain but also to explain a b, then y is a better theory) .3 This means that the phenomenon to be explained more can also put forward different theories to explain these phenomena will be the greater the difficulty, but for a single issue, we can often create many different answers nothing to do with the fact that even the experience of the answer (Just think, two passers-by for a fight after a fight because of this fact, you can ask how much is reasonable and logical answer.) specific to the promise made by the book Tanami problem, she would like to explain is why the final analysis, the Qin Shi Huang to unify China was not united Europe of Napoleon. For such a single issue, presented a different solution is very easy (I will illustrate the latter part of this article ). And, if a scholar has a plausible Gestalt capacity, he provided answers to the layman it seems there is always a grain of truth. In general, the balance of the comparative method and theory of history is often not revealed by the development of an experience thing The real internal mechanism, but simply the logical result of the theory with the experience of ending things with the same structure. It is in the best cases, only a formal theory .4
Third, the historical narrative is the key to space , that is, a historical event took place in what time, where and what the occasion and the way in time and space development. Only in this narrative technique, we can begin to truly understand the dynamics of history and even some meaningful interpretation of the law. But by comparing the symmetry inherent limitations of historical method limitations, scholars generally take this approach by comparing the light weight of history, or that they often lack a strong historical narrative of the time / space sense. In the book, the basic promise Tanami Realism is in the framework of the theory of international relations down the historical development of the Spring and Autumn. But we know that the Spring and Autumn's dominant period of transition and all have their own national war is very different form of politics and international relations. marked by her as hegemony and the Habsburg dynasty, to adopt a strategy are from the bad (Hui, 2005:36). In fact, China's Spring and Autumn Period, the acquisition of territory the vassal state in the occupied territories after the universal packet to the new nobility and military medals nobles (known as secondary feudal). This process strengthened the forces of the nobility, weakening the power of the country, resulting in the state of Jin and the other major powers have been the collapse of the Central Plains. Clearly, in the early Spring and Autumn, vassal state in the fight Pa is taken in a typical strategy of self-failure. In short, comparative historical method in the symmetry restrictions, the classification of the book Tanami lack of time means a sense of history, the lack of convincing examples, it may be very difficult to get the time recognition of the sensitive historian.
errors using the theory of international relations as a focus on research
scholars of international relations, Xu Bo Tian also made an almost all political scientists in international relations are common mistakes that They underestimate the role of social structure, too much emphasis on strategic choice of actors on the social development. Tanami is one of the central arguments of politicians to take the Warring States period of China's reform strategy Shang Yang style of modern Europe do not do, so China to move toward a unified Europe is not. Of course, different political strategies might be caused by different historical consequences, but from a long segment of view, history is often a non-corporate actors and consequences (unintended consequences). In addition, the strategy choice of actors Its effectiveness is constrained by other conditions. For example, if Louis XIV in the establishment of a centralized state happened to read when the book and decided to take Shang Yang Shang Yang's approach to reform, such reform can be successful in France? I would like to know how many readers of a number of European history will give a negative answer. The reason is that the Legalists opposition faced by the reform is only the nobility has been declining in influence, while in France, Louis XIV is not only faced is the noble forces only, but also a strong influence of the church and the middle class power. Qin Dynasty in feudal China and Europe, the initial increase in intensity of war, national forces are very weak and have no regular army. But in Europe, the independent or semi-independent feudal economic city in Europe before the war, increase in intensity, that is, in the early Middle Ages, has been gradually formed, and pre-Qin China does not have this type of city. Therefore, The medieval knight of the war in Europe tended to decline, many countries In the absence of capacity of countries like China Warring States Period, as established in the country to take coercive measures and thus had to rely on conventional military mercenaries to fight. This makes the war in Europe is even more rely on the state's financial debt to maintain. However, as was Europe's urban economy and financial system have been well developed, dependent on money to fight a period of time in many European countries (especially those city-state) can be a very effective way, which also increased the dependence of money the war in Europe. Europe This form of warfare to the urban middle class as the representative of the interests of bargaining chips to the country. In short, the powerful forces of the nobility, the church forces and the forces of urban economic constraints, centralization of any country in Europe reforms Qin Shang Yang can not, as so thorough reform.
deviation from the method experience limited to theoretical and methodological
bias to the work of Xu Tian Bo brought a series of problems. One of the most major is Comparison of balance under the historical method, we are, above discussion, the author of this question have been cited for a number of examples. we can continue to cite different examples of the limited space here to name just three cases of .1. Qin Dynasty in China and modern Europe, a completely different geographic (spatial) environment. geography of modern Europe is much more complex than in China. Tanami also noted this problem. But in order to maintain her theory, Poma on the field also has stressed the mountains of China's rivers and other complicated geographical conditions, but these do not hinder the unification process of Qin (Hui, 2005:90,160) .5 It should be noted that the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese civilization in the heart of the North China Plain and the Yangtze River Basin between. From the perspective of the state of Qin, the Hangu Pass Funiushan after the Yellow River and gradually the terrain between the open, to the east of Luoyang, is even more Yimapingchuan. in the state of Qin, after the occupation of the Sichuan, more along the Yangtze River down from the hinterland behind the attack on the state of Chu. to Shanxi Shanxi within the core region although the line has too, and in the mountain range Luliang, but they do not constitute the state of Qin was the offensive key for the natural moat, because the center of Shanxi Fen phase is connected by Yuncheng, Linfen and Taiyuan basins. Qin immediately across the Yellow River into the open plains of Yuncheng and Linfen. More important, Xu Bo Tian also forget the geographical terrain is only one element of the war. In addition to the terrain, the impact of war Geographic factors include distance, climate and disease, and so other factors. Tanami he had been pointed out that the distance from Paris to Moscow, from Xianyang to Linzi almost 3 times (Hui, 2005:160), but she apparently did not fully understand the distance behind the military significance: it means not remove the colony, near the modern stage of the war in Europe than in the Warring States period in China many times larger. mechanized transport in the Napoleonic era before the birth, which would give the war from their own bring endless difficulties, not to mention the expansion of the war also brought the stage temperature, precipitation and disease diversity. the stage of modern warfare in Europe from North Africa and Spain, has been across the tropical northern Europe and Russia to the polar climate. defeat in Russia to take Napoleon, the army is largely frozen to death and not killed in action.
2. Warring States period of Chinese and modern European history is still in a completely different (time) the next stage. Specifically, before the birth of modern nationalism, a place where people do not care who their rulers (ie, often contradictory and not only the cultural contradictions of national identity. so full of people accepted into the Han Chinese culture, customs, Han Chinese have also come to accept the rule of the Manchus. this before the birth of modern nationalism with international political conditions two direct consequences. First of all, as long as the ruling group in a region conquered by aliens, or reached a compromise with the alien rulers, the people will be launched almost impossible to continue class, and organized resistance activities. Second, the national ruling elite and And the people out of their own interests and not a nationalist feelings of the faithful. for them during the war or to seek refuge in time of peace and for the other effect of the hostile party, and will not pose a significant psychological burden. This is why countries in the Warring States Period the intellectual elite will be running all countries up for grabs, and why the state of Qin to recruit talent in the country for their services, why not against the people of Qin, States spontaneous guerrilla-style resistance movement was launched. In short, the pre-Qin to some extent during the war similar to today about the civil war (civil war), but not full international war (this sense, the entire Tanami Comparative Study of Xu rationality to be a great challenge). In contrast, Napoleon trying to conquer the whole of Europe, Europe has entered the era of nationalism. modern nationalism is the most important features of his subjects transformed into an independent conscious citizens, citizens love their country and had a strong sense of identity, that country became a Napoleon was collapsed on the battlefield in Spain because the Spanish in the new nationalism inspired by Napoleon's army launched simply can not deal with the modern guerrilla warfare (Hui ,2005:132-133). Unfortunately, Tanami did not notice the importance of this issue.
3. I even think that, in modern Europe, even if we assume that a country successfully carried out the reform of China's Legalist style, it is not able to Unity Europe. Although modern European country's national development path has some similar figures, the internal also have different degree of Europe, in Japan in the world, not the status of Empire is the United Kingdom. why? and not just because the French reforms not thorough enough. Although the British throne after the Glorious Revolution was a lot of restrictions, but because of the a constitutional monarchy, the legitimacy of the British Government there is a great improvement. Therefore, once Britain's ruling reached a consensus in Parliament, the British state's fiscal capacity is often learn more than France. Second, a variety of modern Europe reasons for taking a fight by the way the money. Such a war is very easy to cause weakness of the financial crisis, but it also stimulated the interest of the state economic development. In the emerging capitalism in Europe, the process for the market economic development and military production and technology to improve quickly. From this sense, the French-style centralized way to strengthen the state's arbitrary power (despotic power) and organizational skills (ie, Mann said, the extensive nature of technology), and the United Kingdom type of constitutional path is increased permeability of the national society (infrastructural power) and the production and technological innovation (ie, Mann said intensive technologies) .6 In the coming industrial revolution in Europe, Britain's Although not native to almost uniform rule the entire world. We can say the Europe's China does not exist an effective The book still has a lot of secondary sexual shortcomings. For example, most of the scholar stressed the peaceful nature of Chinese culture and introverted, while she has criticized this view and stressed the belligerence of the Chinese culture (Hui, 2005:156 -159). Here Tanami apparently forgotten scholar who emphasized that the Han Chinese society since the basic state, and her analysis is the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese society. This is totally different. geopolitical position in the French issue, Xu Bo Tian assume the Napoleonic era in France and compared to the state of Qin the Warring States Period. In fact, the south of France, Spain, west of the British Empire, Prussia, north east, Austria-Hungary and Russia, is a typical four enemy countries. It is more like the geographical and political position rather than the state of Qin Wei.
book in the Tanami, she also stressed the Qin army fighting bravely because their people have freedom of speech, legal justice powers and economic power (freedom of expression, right of access to justice, and economic right) (Hui ,2005:168-177) .7 The book is often used to describe many of the modern concept of ancient phenomenon, people have often startling reading of the sense. of these concepts in the use of the many irregularities pointed out one by one the inconvenience. just described is the basic method of Qin Legalist reform and the subjects it to the benefits and the establishment of the modern sense of tiny not yet been invented in China. This a lot of documentary material, the book most of the micro logic of argument has a strong tightness. These are our domestic scholars rarely do, and need to be learned. Although the whole book in the Tanami views and analysis of ideas biased, but the detailed analysis of many of her brilliant yet often, reading can give us a lot of inspiration. The book won the American Political Science Association's 2006 International History and Politics Jervis-Schroeder Best Book Award. as a This groundbreaking book, she has its own significance. I recommend this book to readers.
1 powers pursued opportunistic expansion and practiced counterbalancing strategies, they rarely employed cunning and ruthless tactics against one another has was common in the ancient Chinese system. War is cruel in the late Warring States were suddenly up, and the development of war in Europe after the Napoleonic era to become cruel to the World War II is almost crazy. History has its own process of development.
2 According to Xu Tian Bo description of China's self-reform policies, including: the establishment of a country with conscription-based army general, tax policy and a powerful means of promoting economic development, and a merit-based bureaucracy. And Since the measures are weak in Europe, including: the establishment of a professional military of mercenaries and regular army-based, and a large extent dependent on the money, loans or even Maiguan war material mobilization mechanisms (Hui, 2005:4 ).
3 for a very complex thing, it's one of them to explain phenomena like the blind men feeling an elephant. a scholar can be made if more crucial question, his answer to the same blind man touched the elephant's body. This , although we still do not know the shape of elephant, or at least like to know is a big thing. Otherwise, we even are confused as to the size.
4 What is the form on the theory and its application and limitations , see Bio of (2005: Chapter VIII).
5 Qin Xu Tian Bo stressed the location even better than any other Warring States national superiority (Hui ,2005:90-97). She apparently did not land in the old Qin conducted in and around travel and field trips. her conclusion does not conform to almost all from Jia Yi Chinese historians later held a consensus that the state of Qin has a great geographical advantage, although not to the superior geographical conditions, the final The only condition of the unification of China.
6 Man of arbitrary power (despotic power) and the permeability of power (infrastructural power), and extensive technologies (extensive technology) and intensive technologies (intensive techonology) have made a brilliant definition of (Mann, 1986).
7 Please note that the book often promised Tanami ancient people called the people (people) rather than the minister (subjects).
References:
Bio of, 2005, Lectures and political movement > Early Modern Europe.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kiser, Edgar & Yong Cai 2003,
Mann, Michael 1986, The Sources of Social Power, vol.1: A History of Power
from the Beginning to AD 1760. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Moore, Barrington 1966, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy.Boston: Beacon Press.
Author: Department of Sociology, University of Chicago
Editor: Zhang Zhimin